About the 4 ASHRAMAS

Ashrama in Hinduism is one of four age-based life stages discussed in Indian texts of the ancient and medieval eras. The four ashramas are: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (retired) and Sannyasa (renunciate).

The classical system, in the Ashrama Upanishad, the Vaikhanasa Dharmasutra and the later Dharmashastra, presents these as sequential stages of human life and recommends ages for entry to each stage, while in the original system presented in the early Dharmasutras the Ashramas were four alternative available ways of life, neither presented as sequential nor with age recommendations.

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About the PURANAS

PURANAS : The word Purana ( Sanskrit: पुराण, purāṇa) literally means "ancient, old", and it is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore.

There are 18 Maha Puranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upa Puranas (Minor Puranas), with over 400,000 verses.

 
Mahapuranas
Of the many texts designated 'Puranas' the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas or the major Puranas. These are said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though they are not always counted in the same way.

1 Agni (15,400 verses). Contains encyclopedic information. Includes geography of Mithila (Bihar and neighboring states), cultural history, politics, education system, iconography, taxation theories, organization of army, theories on proper causes for war, diplomacy, local laws, building public projects, water distribution methods, trees and plants, medicine, Vastu Shastra (architecture), gemology, grammar, metrics, poetry, food, rituals and numerous other topics.
2 Bhagavata (18,000 verses). The most studied and popular of the Puranas, telling of Vishnu's Avatars, and of Vaishnavism. It contains controversial genealogical details of various dynasties. Numerous inconsistent versions of this text and historical manuscripts exist, in many Indian languages. Influential and elaborated during Bhakti movement.
3 Brahma (10,000 verses) Sometimes also called Adi Purana, because many Mahapuranas lists put it first of 18. The text has 245 chapters, shares many passages with Vishnu, Vayu, Markendeya Puranas, and with the Mahabharata. Includes mythology, theory of war, art work in temples, and other cultural topics. Describes holy places in Odisha, and weaves themes of Vishnu and Shiva, but hardly any mention of deity Brahma despite the title.
4 Brahmanda (12,000 verses). One of the earliest composed Puranas, it contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties. Includes Lalita Sahasranamam, law codes, system of governance, administration, diplomacy, trade, ethics. Old manuscripts of Brahmanda Purana have been found in the Hindu literature collections of Bali, Indonesia.
5 Brahmavaivarta (18,000 verses). It is related by Savarni to Narada, and centres around the greatness of Krishna and Radha. In this, the story of Brahma-varaha is repeatedly told. Notable for asserting that Krishna is the supreme reality and the gods Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma are incarnations of him. Mentions geography and rivers such as Ganga to Kaveri.
6 Garuda (19,000 verses). An encyclopedia of diverse topics. Primarily about Vishnu, but praises all gods. Describes how Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma collaborate. Many chapters are a dialogue between Vishnu and the bird-vehicle Garuda. Describes cosmology, relationship between gods. Discusses ethics, what are crimes, good versus evil, various schools of Hindu philosophies, the theory of Yoga, the theory of "heaven and hell" with "karma and rebirth", includes Upanishadic discussion of self-knowledge as a means of moksha. Includes chapters on rivers, geography of Bharat (India) and other nations on earth, types of minerals and stones, testing methods for stones for their quality, various diseases and their symptoms, various medicines, aphrodisiacs, prophylactics, Hindu calendar and its basis, astronomy, moon, planets, astrology, architecture, building home, essential features of a temple, rites of passage, virtues such as compassion, charity and gift making, economy, thrift, duties of a king, politics, state officials and their roles and how to appoint them, genre of literature, rules of grammar, and other topics. The final chapters discuss how to practice Yoga (Samkhya and Advaita types), personal development and the benefits of self-knowledge.
7 Kurma (17,000 verses). Contains a combination of Vishnu and Shiva related legends, mythology, Tirtha (pilgrimage) and theology.
8 Linga (11,000 verses). Discusses Lingam, symbol of Shiva, and origin of the universe as per Shaivism. It also contains many stories of Lingam, one of which entails how Agni Lingam solved a dispute between Vishnu and Brahma.
9 Markandeya (9,000 verses). Describes Vindhya Range and western India. Probably composed in the valleys of Narmada and Tapti rivers, in Maharashtra and Gujarat. Named after sage Markandeya, a student of Brahma. Contains chapters on dharma and on Hindu epic Mahabharata. The Purana includes Devi Mahatmyam of Shaktism.
10 Matsya (14,000 verses). An encyclopedia of diverse topics. Narrates the story of Matsya, the first of ten major Avatars of Vishnu. Likely composed in west India, by people aware of geographical details of the Narmada river. Includes legends about Brahma and Saraswati. It also contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.
11 Narada (25,000 verses). Also called Naradiya Purana. Discusses the four Vedas and the six Vedangas. Dedicates one chapter each, from Chapters 92 to 109, to summarize the other 17 Maha Puranas and itself. Lists major rivers of India and places of pilgrimage, and a short tour guide for each. Includes discussion of various philosophies, soteriology, planets, astronomy, myths and characteristics of major deities including Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, Krishna, Rama, Lakshmi and others.
12 Padma (55,000 verses).A large compilation of diverse topics, it escribes cosmology, the world and nature of life from the perspective of Vishnu. It also discusses festivals, numerous legends, geography of rivers and regions from northwest India to Bengal to the kingdom of Tripura, major sages of India, various Avatars of Vishnu and his cooperation with Shiva, a story of Rama-Sita that is different from the Hindu epic Ramayana.The north Indian manuscripts of Padma Purana are very different from south Indian versions, and the various recensions in both groups in different languages (Devanagari and Bengali, for example) show major inconsistencies. Like the Skanda Purana, it is a detailed treatise on travel and pilgrimage centers in India.
13 Shiva (24,000) verses. Discusses Shiva, and stories about him.
14 Skanda (81,100). verses Describes the birth of Skanda (or Karthikeya), son of Shiva. The longest Purana, it is an extraordinarily meticulous pilgrimage guide, containing geographical locations of pilgrimage centers in India, with related legends, parables, hymns and stories. Many untraced quotes are attributed to this text.
15 Vamana (10,000) verses. Describes North India, particularly Himalayan foothills region.
16 Varaha 524,000 verses. Primarily Vishnu-related worship manual, with large Mahatmya sections or travel guide to Mathura and Nepal Presentation focuses on Varaha as incarnation of Narayana, but rarely uses the terms Krishna or Vasudeva. Many illustrations also involve Shiva and Durga.
17 Vayu (24,000 verses). Possibly the oldest of all Maha Puranas. Some medieval Indian texts call it  ayaviya Purana. Mentioned and studied by Al Biruni, the 11th century Persian visitor to India. Praises Shiva. Discusses rituals, family life, and life stages of a human being. The content in Vayu Purana is also found in Markandeya Purana. Describes south India, particularly modern Telangana and Andhra Pradesh regions. It contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.
18 Vishnu (23,000 verses). One of the most studied and circulated Puranas, it also contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties. Better preserved after the 17th century, but exists in inconsistent versions, more ancient pre-15th century versions are very different from modern versions, with some versions discussing Buddhism and Jainism. Some chapters likely composed in Kashmir and Punjab region of South Asia. A Vaishnavism text, focussed on Vishnu.

The Padma Purana, Uttara Khanda (236.18-21), classifies the Puranas in accordance with the three gunas or qualities; truth, passion, and ignorance :
Sattva ("truth") : Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Naradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha Purana.
Rajas ("passion") Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Vamana Purana, Brahma Purana.
Tamas ("ignorance") Matsya Purana, Kurma purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana.

The Upapuranas (Sanskrit: Upapurāṇa) are a genre of Hindu religious texts consisting of many compilations differentiated from the Mahapuranas by styling them as secondary Puranas using a disparaging prefix Upa (secondary). Though, only a few of these compilations originated earlier than most of the extant Mahapuranas, some of these texts are extensive and important.

The most significant texts among the Vaishnava Upapuranas are the Vishnudharma Purana, the Vishnudharmottara Purana, the Narasimha Purana, the Brihannaradiya Purana and the Kriyayogasara.

About the 4 VARNAS (Castes)

Varṇa (Sanskrit: वर्ण, romanized: varṇa), a Sanskrit word with several meanings including type, order, colour or class, is used to refer to social classes in most Hindu texts.
These Hindu texts classify the society in principle into four varnas:
- Brahmins (Brahmanas) : priests, scholars and teachers.
- Kshatriyas: rulers, warriors and administrators.
- Vaishyas (Vaisyas) : agriculturalists and merchants.
- Shudras (Sudras) : laborers and service providers.

The Mahabharata, Book 3: Vana Parva: Tirtha-yatra Parva: Section CLXXIX (extract) :
"Yudhishthira said, Those characteristics that are present in a Sudra, do not exist in a Brahmana; nor do those that are in a Brahmana exist in a Sudra. And a Sudra is not a Sudra by birth alone--nor a Brahmana is Brahmana by birth alone. He, it is said by the wise, in whom are seen those virtues* is a Brahmana. And people term him a Sudra in whom those qualities* do not exist, even though he be a Brahmana by birth.
* Note from KD : Here, those virtues and qualities are : truth, charity, forgiveness, benevolence, benignity, kindness and the Veda.

The Mahabharata, Book 3: Vana Parva: Markandeya-Samasya Parva: Section CCXI (extract) :
A man, O Brahmana, may be born in the Sudra caste, but if he is possessed of good qualities, he may attain the state of Vaisya and similarly that of a Kshatriya, and if he is steadfast in rectitude, he may even become a Brahmana.

The Mahabharata, Book 3: Vana Parva: Markandeya-Samasya Parva: Section CCXV (extract) :
For the Brahmana who is vain and haughty, who is addicted to vices and wedded to evil and degrading practices, is like a Sudra. On the other hand, I consider a Sudra who is always adorned with these virtues, (righteousness, self-restraint, and truthfulness), as a Brahmana. A man becomes a Brahmana by his character; by his own evil karma a man attains an evil and terrible doom.

The Mahabharata, Book 4: Virata Parva: Go-harana Parva: Section L (extract) :
A Brahmana, having studied the Vedas, should perform sacrifices himself, and officiate at the sacrifices of others. And a Kshatriya, depending upon the bow, should perform sacrifices himself but should never officiate at the sacrifices of others. And a Vaisya, having earned wealth, should cause the rites enjoined in the Vedas to be performed for himself*. A Sudra should always wait upon and serve the other three orders.
* Note from KD : It means : performed for himself by a Brahmana.

The Mahabharata, Book 5: Udyoga Parva: Section XXIX (extract) :
A Brahmana should study, offer sacrifices, make charities, and sojourn to the best of all holy places on the earth; he should teach, minister as a priest in sacrifices offered by others worthy of such help, and accept gifts from persons who are known. Similarly, a Kshatriya should protect the people in accordance with the injunctions of the law, diligently practise the virtue of charity, offer sacrifices, study the whole Veda, take a wife, and lead a virtuous householder's life. If he be possessed of a virtuous soul, and if he practises the holy virtues, he may easily attain the religion of the Supreme Being. A Vaisya should study and diligently earn and accumulate wealth by means of commerce, agriculture, and the tending of cattle. He should so act as to please the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas, be virtuous, do good works, and be a householder. The following are the duties declared for a Sudra from the olden times. He should serve the Brahmanas and submit to them; should not study*; sacrifices are forbidden to him; he should be diligent and be constantly enterprising in doing all that is for his good.
* Note from KD : It may be understood that if he would study the Scriptures, it should be under a Spiritual Master's guidance. The sense of "study" is manifold.

The Mahabharata, Book 5: Udyoga Parva: Section XL (extract) :
That Brahmana who never omitteth to perform his ablutions, who always weareth his sacred thread, who always attendeth to the study of the Vedas, who always avoideth food that is unclean, who telleth the truth and performeth acts in honour of his preceptor, never falleth off from the region of Brahma. Having studied the Vedas, poured libations into fire, performed sacrifices, protected subjects, sanctified his soul by drawing weapons for protecting kine and Brahmanas, and died on the field of battle, the Kshatriya attaineth to heaven. Having studied the Vedas, and distributed in proper time, his wealth among Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, and his own dependents, and inhaled the sanctified smoke of the three kinds of fires, the Vaisya enjoyeth heavenly bliss in the other world. Having properly worshipped Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, and Vaisayas in due order, and having burnt his sins, by gratifying them, and then peacefully casting off his body, the Sudra enjoyeth the bliss of heaven. The duties of the four orders are thus set forth before thee.

The Mahabharata, Book 5: Udyoga Parva: Uluka Dutagamana Parva: Section CLXIX (extract) :
It hath been said that a Kshatriya acquireth eminence only through might, as Brahmanas acquire eminence through superiority in mantras, as Vaisyas through wealth, and Sudras through age.

The Mahabharata, Book 6: Bhishma Parva: Bhagavat-Gita Parva: Section XXXIII (Bhagavad Gita Chapter IX) (extract) :
(Krishna says :) Know, O son of Kunti, that none devoted to me is ever lost. For, O son of Pritha, even they who may be of sinful birth, women, Vaisyas, and also Sudras, even they, resorting to me, attain to the supreme goal. What then (shall I say) of holy Brahmanas and saints who are my devotees?

The Mahabharata, Book 13: Anusasana Parva: Section XLIV (extract) :
A Brahmana can take three wives*. A Kshatriya can take two wives*. As regards the Vaisya, he should take a wife* from only his own order. The children born of these wives should all be regarded as equal. Of the three wives of a Brahmana, she taken from his own order should be regarded as the foremost. Similarly, of the two wives permitted to the Kshatriya, she taken from his own order should be regarded as superior.
Notes from KD : As regards the Sudra, he should take only a wife from his own order.
* As explained in the following sections (XLVII, XLVIII), an additional wife from the Sudra order can be taken, but it is not sanctioned by the scriptures.

About KARMA

KARMA : Le karma est le reflet de nos actions antérieures qui se manifeste dans notre vie actuelle. Il faut constamment chercher à améliorer son karma, littéralement ses actions, par de bonnes actions et en respectant le dharma*. Le but est de sortir définitivement du cycle des morts et des naissances (saṃsāra) et d'atteindre la libération finale appelée moksha.
* Dharma: De façon générale, désigne l'ensemble des normes et lois, sociales, politiques, familiales, personnelles, naturelles ou cosmiques.

The Mahabharata, Book 3: Vana Parva: Markandeya-Samasya Parva: Section CCVII (extracts) :
"Markandeya continued, 'The pious fowler, O Yudhishthira, then said to that Brahmana, 'Undoubtedly
my deeds are very cruel, but, O Brahmana, Destiny is all-powerful and it is difficult to evade the consequence of our past actions. And this is the karmic evil arising out of sin committed in a former life.
But, O Brahmana, I am always assiduous in eradicating the evil. The Deity takes away life, the executioner acts only as a secondary agent. And we, O good Brahmana, are only such agents in regard to our karma. Those animals that are slain by me and whose meat I sell, also acquire karma, because (with their meat), gods and guests and servants are regaled with dainty food and the manes are propitiated...
... The Karma of a former existence never forsakes any creature. And in determining the various consequences of one's Karma, this rule was not lost of sight by the Creator. A person having his being under the influence of evil Karma, must always consider how he can atone for his Karma, and extricate himself from an evil doom, and the evil Karma may be expiated in various ways. Accordingly, O good Brahmana, I am charitable, truthful, assiduous in attending on my superior, full of respect towards regenerate Brahmanas, devoted to and free from pride and (idle) excessive talk. Agriculture is considered to be a praiseworthy occupation, but it is well-known that even there, great harm is done to animal life; and in the operation of digging the earth with the plough, numberless creatures lurking in the ground as also various other forms of animal life are destroyed.

The Mahabharata, Book 3: Vana Parva: Markandeya-Samasya Parva Section CCVIII (extracts) :
And, the best of the cherishers of religion, thou hast observed that those who have it in their power to enjoy
(the good things of this earth), are prevented from doing so from the fact of their suffering from chronic
bowel-complaints, and that many others that are strong and powerful, suffer from misery, and are enabled with great difficulty to obtain a livelihood; and that every man is thus helpless, overcome by misery and illusion, and again and again tossed and overpowered by the powerful current of his own actions (karma). If there were absolute freedom of action, no creature would die, none would be subject to decay, or await his evil doom, and everybody would attain the object of his desire...
... 'The spirit dies not, there being simply a change of tenement. They are mistaken, who foolishly say that all creatures die. The soul betakes itself to another frame, and its change of habitation is called its death. In the world of men, no man reaps the consequences of another man's karma. Whatever one does, he is sure to reap the consequences thereof; for the consequences of the karma that is once done, can never be obviated.
The virtuous become endowed with great virtues, and sinful men become the perpetrators of wicked deeds. Men's actions follow them; and influenced by these, they are born again.'...
... This mystery seems to belong to the subject of procreation, but I shall briefly describe to you, O good
Brahmana, how the spirit is born again with its accumulated load of karma, the righteous in a virtuous, and the wicked in a sinful nativity. By the performance of virtuous actions it attains to the state of the gods, and by a combination of good and evil, it acquires the human state; by indulgence in sensuality and similar demoralising practices it is born in the lower species of animals, and by sinful acts, it goes to the infernal regions. Afflicted with the miseries of birth and dotage, man is fated to rot here below from the evil consequences of his own actions. Passing through thousands of births as also the infernal regions, our spirits wander about, secured by the fetters of their own karma. Animate beings become miserable in the next world on account of these actions done by themselves and from the reaction of those miseries, they assume lower births and then they accumulate a new series of actions, and they consequently suffer misery over again, like sickly men partaking of unwholesome food; and although they are thus afflicted, they consider themselves to be happy and at ease and consequently their fetters are not loosened and new karma arises; and suffering from diverse miseries they turn about in this world like a wheel. If casting off their fetters they purify themselves by their actions and practise austerities and religious meditations, then, O best of Brahmanas, they attain the Elysian regions by these numerous acts and by casting off their fetters and by the purification of karma, men attain those blissful regions where misery is unknown to those who go there.

The Mahabharata, Book 13: Anusasana Parva: Anusasanika Parva: Section I (extract) :
"Kala said, 'Neither Mrityu, nor this serpent, nor I, O fowler, am guilty of the death of any creature. We are merely the immediate exciting causes of the event. O Arjunaka, the Karma of this child formed the exciting cause of our action in this matter. There was no other cause by which this child came by its death. It was killed as a result of its own Karma. It has met with death as the result of its Karma in the past. Its Karma has been the cause of its destruction. We all are subject to the influence of our respective Karma. Karma is an aid to salvation even as sons are, and Karma also is an indicator of virtue and vice in man. We urge one another even as acts urge one another. As men make from a lump of clay whatever they wish to make, even so do men attain to various results determined by Karma. As light and shadow are related to each other, so are men related to Karma through their own actions. Therefore, neither art thou, nor am I, nor Mrityu, nor the serpent, nor this old Brahmana lady, is the cause of this child's death. He himself is the cause here.

The Mahabharata, Book 13: Anusasana Parva: Anusasanika Parva: Section VII (extract) :
As the young calf is able to recognise its dam from among a thousand cows, so does the previous acts of a man pursue him (in all his different transformations). As the flowers and fruits of a tree, unurged by visible influences, never miss their proper season, so does Karma done in a previous existence bring about its fruits in proper time.

The Mahabharata, Book 13: Anusasana Parva: Anusasanika Parva: Section XIII : 
"Yudhishthira said, 'What should a man do in order to pass pleasantly through this and the other world.
How, indeed, should one conduct oneself? What practices should one adopt with this end in view?'
"Bhishma said, 'One should avoid the three acts that are done with the body, the four that are done with
speech, the three that are done with the mind, (also called) the ten paths of action. The three acts that are done with the body and should be wholly avoided are the destruction of the lives of other creatures, theft or
appropriation of what belongs to other persons, and the enjoyment of other people's wives. The four acts that are done with speech, O king, and that should never be indulged in or even thought of, are evil conversation, harsh words, publishing other people's faults, and falsehood. Coveting the possessions of others, doing injury to others, and disbelief in the ordinances of the Vedas, are the three acts done with the mind which should always be avoided. Hence, one should never do any evil act in word, body, or mind. By doing good and evil acts, one is sure to enjoy or endure the just consequences thereof. Nothing can be more certain than this.'"

The Mahabharata, Book 13: Anusasana Parva: Anusasanika Parva: Section LVIII : 
Footnote from Kisari Mohan Ganguli : Heaven and Hell are places of only enjoyment and endurance. There can be no acts there leading to merit or demerit. This world is the only place which is called the field of acts.

About GUNA

Guṇa in the Hindu philosophy context means "quality, peculiarity, attribute, property".
The gunas are a key concept in nearly all schools of Hindu philosophy. There are three gunas, according to this worldview, that have always been and continue to be present in all things and beings in the world. These three gunas are called: sattva (goodness, constructive, harmonious), rajas (passion, active, confused), and tamas (darkness, destructive, chaotic). All of these three gunas are present in everyone and everything, it is the proportion that is different, according to Hindu worldview. The interplay of these gunas defines the character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life.

Notes from Kisari Mohan Ganguli in the Mahabharata translation:
- The commentator explains (about Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CLXXXVIII) that the words expressive of hue or colour really mean attributes. What is intended to be said is that the Brahmanas had the attribute (white) of Goodness (Sattwa); the second order (Kshatriyas) had the attribute (red) of Passion (Rajas); the third (Vaisyas)(yellow) got a mixture of the two, i.e., both goodness and passion (Sattwa and Rajas); while the lowest order (sudras) got the remaining attribute (black), viz., Darkness (Tamas).
- The three attributes of Rajas, Tamas, and Sattwa do not spring from any different thing but from their own counterparts existing in a previous state of existence or life. They arise from their respective states as they existed with the Chitta or understanding in a previous life. Hence Chitta, and the objects of the senses and the senses also arising from it, are all affected by these three Gunas.
- Prakriti is regarded as something in which Sattwa, Rajas, and Tamas reside in exactly equal proportion. All the principles of Mahat, etc. which flow from Prakriti, are characterised by these three attributes in diverse measure.

The Mahabharata, Book 3: Vana Parva: Markandeya-Samasya Parva: Section CCXI (extract) :
The Brahmana said, 'Do thou truly describe to me, who now duly ask thee, the respective virtues of the qualities of sattwa, rajas, and tamas.' The fowler replied, 'Very well, I shall tell thee what thou hast asked. I shall describe separately their respective virtues, do thou listen. Of them tamas is characterised by illusion (spiritual), rajas incites (men to action), sattwa is of great grandeur, and on that account, it is said to be the greatest of them. He who is greatly under the influence of spiritual ignorance, who is foolish, senseless and given to dreaming, who is idle, unenergetic and swayed by anger and haughtiness, is said to be under the
influence of tamas. And, O Brahmana rishi, that excellent man who is agreeable in speech, thoughtful, free from envy, industrious in action from an eager desire to reap its fruits, and of warm temperament, is said to be under the influence of rajas. And he who is resolute, patient, not subject to anger, free from malice, and is not skilful in action from want of a selfish desire to reap its fruits, wise and forbearing, is said to be under the influence of sattwa... Know that sattwa, rajas and tamas, are the attributes of all life and that life is the attribute of spirit, and that the latter again is an attribute of the Supreme Spirit.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CCXLVII (extract) :
Delight, cheerfulness, joy, equanimity, contentment of heart, due to any known cause or arising otherwise, are all effects of the attribute of Sattwa. Pride, untruthfulness of speech, cupidity, stupefication, vindictiveness, whether arising from any known cause or otherwise, are indications of the quality of Rajas. Stupefaction of judgment, heedlessness, sleep, lethargy, and indolence, from whatever cause these may arise, are to be known as indications of the quality of Tamas.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCIII (extract) :
Through Tamas one goes to hell*. Through Rajas one attains to and remains in the status of humanity.
Through Sattwa, people ascend to the regions of the deities and become sharers of great felicity.
*NB: Hell here means "intermediate orders or beings like animals, plants, etc.(continue P. 4615)

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCIX (extract) :
When Jiva succeeds in knowing Prakriti which is unintelligent and subject to the action of the three
attributes of Sattwa, and Rajas and Tamas, he then becomes destitute of attributes himself. In consequence of his thus understanding the Unmanifest (to be something different from him), he succeeds in acquiring the nature of the Supreme Soul. The learned say that when he is freed from the attributes of Sattwa and Rajas and Tamas and united in the nature with the Supreme Soul then does Jiva become identified with that Soul.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCXIV (extract) :
Patience, joy, prosperity, satisfaction, brightness of all faculties, happiness, purity, health, contentment, faith, liberality, compassion, forgiveness, firmness, benevolence, equanimity, truth, acquittance of obligations, mildness, modesty, calmness, external purity, simplicity, observance of obligatory practices, dispassionateness, fearlessness of heart, disregard for the appearance or otherwise of good and evil as also for past acts,--appropriation of objects only when obtained by gift, the absence of cupidity, regard for the interests of others, compassion for all creatures, these have been said to be the qualities that attach to the attribute of Sattwa. The tale of qualities attaching to the attribute of Rajas consists of pride of personal beauty, assertion of lordship, war, disclination to give, absence of compassion, enjoyment and enduring of happiness and misery, pleasure in speaking ill of others, indulgence in quarrels and disputes of every kind, arrogance, discourtesy, anxiety, indulgence in hostilities, sorrow, appropriation of what belongs to others, shamelessness, crookedness, disunions, roughness, lust, wrath, pride, assertion of superiority, malice, and calumny. These are said to spring from the attributes of Rajas. I shall now tell thee of that assemblage of qualities which springs from Tamas. They are stupefaction of judgment, obscuration of every faculty, darkness and blind darkness. By darkness is implied death, and by blind darkness is meant wrath. Besides these, the other indications of Tamas are greediness in respect of all kinds of food, ceaseless appetite for both food and drink, taking pleasure in scents and robes and sports and beds and seats and sleep during the day and calumny and all kinds of acts proceeding from heedlessness, taking pleasure, from ignorance (of purer sources of joy) in dancing and instrumental and vocal music, and aversion for every kind of religion. These, indeed, are the indications of Tamas.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCXV (extract) :
Listen now to me, O king, as I speak to thee of the intermixture or compounds of the three attributes of Sattwa, Rajas, and Tamas. Sometimes Rajas is seen existing with Sattwa. Tamas also exists with Rajas. With Tamas may also be seen Sattwa. Then also may Sattwa and Rajas and Tamas be seen existing together and in equal proportions. They constitute the Unmanifest or Prakriti. When the Unmanifest (Purusha) becomes endued with only Sattwa, he attains to the regions of the deities. Endued with both Sattwa and Rajas, he takes birth among human beings. Endued with Rajas and Tawas, he takes birth among the intermediate order of Being. Endued with all three, viz., Sattwa and Rajas and Tamas, he attains to the status of humanity. Those high souled persons that transcend both righteousness and sin, attain it is said, to that place which is eternal, immutable, undecaying, and immortal.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCXL (extract) :
Sattwa, Rajas and Tamas, are said to be the three (original) attributes. These dwell and act in the bodies of all creatures. The Jiva-soul, called Kshetrajna, enjoys and endorse the action of these three attributes. He,
however, transcends them and they cannot touch Him. Freed from these attributes, He is again their enjoyer and endorser. Having created them Himself, He is above them all.

About Caturvyūha

Caturvyūha or Chatur-vyūha ("Four emanations"), is an ancient Indian religious concept initially focusing on the four earthly emanations (Vyūhas) of the Supreme deity Nārāyaṇa (or Vishnu). The first of these emanations is the hero-god Vāsudeva (or Vāsudeva-Krishna), with the other emanations being his kinsmen presented as extensions of Vāsudeva himself.

The four earthly emanations, or "Vyuhas", are identified as Vāsudeva-Krishna (son of Vasudeva* by Devaki), Samkarshana (Balarama-Samkarshana, son of Vasudeva* by Rohini),  Pradyumna (son of Vāsudeva-Krishna by Rukmini), and Aniruddha (son of Pradyumna).
* Vasudeva Anakadundubhi, king of the Vrishnis in the region of Mathura.

The Chatur-vyūha forms of Vishnu are related to four of the six causes of creation which six are God Himself as the final cause of creation and His five aspects – Narāyana ('thinking'), Vāsudeva ('feeling'), Samkarśana ('willing'), Pradyumna ('knowing') and Aniruddha ('acting') successively; each divinity controls its specific creative energy.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Rajadharmanusasana Parva: Section XLVIII (extract) :
Thou art the Lord of those that are bound to thee in faith. O God, thou art adored (by the faithful) under four excellent, high, and secret names*.
* Note from Kisari Mohan Ganguli : The four names under which the Supreme Being is adored by the faithful are Vasudeva, Sankarsana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCXL (extract) :
That illustrious one, viz., Vasudeva, who is called Kshetrajna, and who is freed from attributes, should, O king of kings, be known as the puissant Sankarshana, when he takes birth as Jiva. From Sankarshana arises Pradyumna who is called 'He that is born as Mind.' From Pradyumna is He who is Aniruddha. He is Consciousness, He is Iswara (Supreme Lord).
Note from Kisari Mohan Ganguli : This cosmogony is agreeable to the Vaishnava scriptures. Above all, without beginning is Vasudeva. From Vasudeva is Sankarshana. From Sankarashana is Pradyumna. From Pradyumna is Aniruddha.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCLII (extract) :
The person who realises that inconceivable Purusha and comprehends his subtile existence in the quadruple form of Aniruddha, Pradyumna, Sankarshana, and Vasudeva, and who, in consequence of such comprehension, attains to perfect tranquillity of heart, succeeds in entering into and identifying himself with that one auspicious Purusha.

About SANKHYA and YOGA

SANKHYA and YOGA philosophies (compared) : Sankhya and Yoga are two of the six āstika* schools of Hindu philosophy.

Sankhya or Samkhya (Sanskrit: सांख्य, IAST: sāṃkhya) is most related to the Yoga school of Hinduism, and it was influential on other schools of Indian philosophy. Sāmkhya philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two realities, puruṣa (consciousness) and prakṛti (matter). Jiva (a living being) is that state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakṛti in some form. This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of buddhi ("intellect") and ahaṅkāra (ego consciousness). The ideas that were developed and assimilated into the classical Samkhya text, the Sāṅkhyakārikā, are visible in earlier Hindu scriptures such as the Vedas, the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita.
The Yoga school derives its ontology and epistemology from Samkhya and adds to it the concept of Isvara (Supreme Soul or God).
*Āstika (Sanskrit आस्तिक IAST: Āstika) derives from the Sanskrit asti, "there is, there exists", and means “one who believes in the existence (of a soul or Brahman, etc.)” and Nāstika means "an unbeliever".
A list of six systems or ṣaḍdarśanas consider the Vedas as a reliable source of knowledge and an authoritative source. These  schools of Hinduism are the Nyaya (the school of logic), Vaisheshika (the atomist school), Samkhya (the enumeration school), Yoga (the school of Patañjali, which assumes the metaphysics of Sāṃkhya), Mīmāṃsā (the tradition of Vedic exegesis) and Vedanta (the Upaniṣadic tradition).
These are often coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons: Nyāyá-Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya-Yoga, and Mimāṃsā-Vedanta.

Notes from Kisari Mohan Ganguli in the Mahabharata translation :
- Sankhya is renunciation of action, while Yoga is devotion through action.
- The sense seems to be this (in the Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCLII) : in the Yoga system He is called the Supreme Soul, for Yogins affirm the existence of two souls, the Jivatman and the Supreme Soul, and assert the superiority of the latter over the former. The Sankhyas regard the Jiva-soul and the Supreme Soul to be one and the same. A third class of men think everything as Soul, there being no difference between the one Soul and the universe displayed in infinitude.

The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Sambhava Parva: Section LXXV (extract) :
And Narada taught these thousand sons of Daksha the excellent philosophy of Sankhya as a means of
salvation.

The Mahabharata, Book 6: Bhishma Parva: Bhagavat-Gita Parva: Section XXVI (Bhagavad Gita Chapter II) (extract) :
This knowledge, that hath been communicated to thee is (taught) in the Sankhya (system). Listen now to that (inculcated) in Yoga (system). Possessed of that knowledge, thou, O Partha, wilt cast off the bonds of action. In this (the Yoga system) there is no waste of even the first attempt. There are no impediments. Even a little of this (form of) piety delivers from great fear.

The Mahabharata, Book 6: Bhishma Parva: Bhagavat-Gita Parva: Section XXVII (Bhagavad Gita Chapter III) (extract) :
The Holy One said,--'It hath already been said by me, O sinless one, that here are, in this world, two kinds of devotion; that of the Sankhyas through knowledge and that of the yogins through work.

The Mahabharata, Book 6: Bhishma Parva: Bhagavat-Gita Parva: Section XXIX (Bhagavad Gita Chapter V) (extract) :
Fools say, but not those that are wise, that Sankhya and Yoga are distinct. One who stayeth in even one (of the two) reapeth the fruit of both. Whatever seat is attained by those who profess the Sankhya system, that too is reached by those who profess the Yoga. He seeth truly who seeth Sankhya and Yoga as one.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Rajadharmanusasana Parva: Section XLVIII (extract) :
Thou always conscious and present in self, the Sankhyas still describe thee as existing in the three states of wakefulness, dream, and sound sleep. They further speak of thee as possessed of sixteen attributes* and representing the number seventeen. Salutations to thy form as conceived by the Sankhyas! Casting off sleep, restraining breath, withdrawn into their own selves, Yogins of restrained senses behold thee as eternal light. Salutations to thee in thy Yoga form!
* Note from Kisari Mohan Ganguli : The sixteen attributes are the eleven senses and the five elements in their subtle forms called Mahabhutas. Added to this is Infinity. The Supreme Being, according to the Sankhya doctrine, is thus the embodiment of the number seventeen.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CCXXXVI (extract) :
In both the Yoga and the Sankhya, systems, five and twenty topics of knowledge have been treated in nearly the same way. Listen to me as I mention their chief features. That has been said to be Manifest which is
possessed of these four attributes, viz., birth, growth, decay, and death. That which is not possessed of
these attributes is said to be Unmanifest. Two souls are mentioned in the Vedas and the sciences that are
based upon them. The first (which is called Jivatman) is endued with the four attributes already mentioned, and has a longing for the four objects or purposes (viz., Religion, Wealth, Pleasure and Emancipation). This soul is called Manifest, and it is born of the Unmanifest (Supreme Soul).

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CCXXXVI (extract) :
That person who cherishes no desire for earthly objects, who is not unwilling to take what comes, who is dependent on earthly objects to only that extent which is necessary for sustaining life, who is free from cupidity, who has driven off all grief, who has restrained his senses, who goes through all necessary acts, who is regardless of personal appearance and attire, whose senses are all collected (for devotion to the true objects of life), whose purposes are never left unaccomplished, who bears himself with equal friendliness towards all creatures, who regards a clod of earth and a lump of gold with an equal eye, who is equally disposed towards friend and foe, who is possessed of patience, who takes praise and blame equally, who is free from longing with respect to all objects of desire, who practises Brahmacharya, and who is firm and steady in all his vows and observances, who has no malice or envy for any creature in the universe, is a Yogin who according to the Sankhya system succeeds in winning Emancipation. Listen now to the way and the means by which a person may win Emancipation through Yoga (or the system of Patanjali). That person who moves and acts after having transcended the puissance that the practice of Yoga brings about (in the initial stages), succeeds in winning Emancipation. I have thus discoursed to thee on those topics (viz., Emancipation according to the Sankhya system and that according to the Yoga system) which are dissimilar if the speaker be disposed to treat them as such (but which in reality, are one and the same)*.
*Note from Kisari Mohan Ganguli : The commentator points out that in this verse the speaker shows a decided preference for the Sankhya philosophy.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CCCI (extract) :
The evidences of Yoga are addressed to the direct ken of the senses; those of Sankhya are based on the scriptures. Both systems of philosophy are approved by me, O Yudhishthira. Both those systems of science, O king, have my concurrence and are concurred in by those that are good and wise. If practised duly according to the instructions laid down, both would, O king, cause a person to attain to the highest end. In both systems purity is equally recommended as also compassion towards all creatures, O sinless one. In both, again, the observance of vows has been equally laid down. Only the scriptures that point out their paths are different.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCII (extract) :
That high-souled person who is fully conversant with the vast, high, ancient, ocean-like, and immeasurable Sankhya system that is pure and liberal and agreeable, becomes, O king, equal to Narayana. I have now told thee, O god among men, the truth about the Sankhya system. It is the embodiment of Narayana, of the universe as it exists from the remotest time.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCVI (extract) :
Only the highest Rishis conversant with the Sankhya and the Yoga systems know that Supreme Soul which
Sankhya and Yogins and believers in all other systems say is beyond the Understanding, which is regarded as Knower and endued with the highest wisdom in consequence of its casting off all consciousness of identification with Prakriti, which transcends the attribute of Ignorance or Error, which is Unmanifest, which is beyond all attributes, which is called the Supreme, which is dissociated from all attributes, which ordains all things, which is Eternal and Immutable, which overrules Prakriti and all the attributes born of Prakriti, and which, transcending the four and twenty topics of enquiry, forms the twenty-fifth.

About the VISHNU PURANA

VISHNU PURANA: The Vishnu Purana (IAST: Viṣṇu Purāṇa) is one of the eighteen Mahapuranas*, a genre of ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism. It is an important Pancharatra* text in the Vaishnavism* literature corpus. Vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, is credited as the compiler of the Puranas. 

*Mahapuranas: Of the many texts designated 'Puranas' the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas or the 18 major Puranas.
*Pancharatra was a religious movement in Hinduism that originated in late 1st millennium BCE around the ideas of Narayana and the various avatars of Vishnu as their central deities.The movement later merged with the ancient Bhagavata tradition and contributed to the development of Vaishnavism.
*Vaishnavism is one of the major Hindu traditions. It is also called Vishnuism, its followers are called Vaishnavas or Vaishnavites, and it considers Vishnu as the Supreme Lord.

About the MAHABHARATA

MAHABHARATA: The Mahābhārata, Sanskrit: महाभारतम्, Mahābhāratam, is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Rāmāyaṇa. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kurukshetra War and the fates of the Kaurava and the Pāṇḍava princes and their successors.
The Mahābhārata is the longest epic poem known and has been described as "the longest poem ever written". Its longest (original and final) version consists of over 100,000 ślokas or over 200,000 individual verse lines (each shloka is a couplet), and long prose passages. Traditionally, the authorship of the Mahābhārata is attributed to Vyāsa.

The 18 parvas or books :
1 Adi Parva (the Beginning)
2 Sabha Parva (the Assembly Hall)
3 Vana Parva also Aranyaka-parva, Aranya-parva (the Forest)
4 Virata Parva (Virata)
5 Udyoga Parva (the Effort)
6 Bhishma Parva (Bhishma)
7 Drona Parva (Drona)
8 Karna Parva (Karna)
9 Shalya Parva (Shalya)
10 Sauptika Parva (the Sleeping Warriors)
11 Stri Parva (the Women)
12 Shanti Parva (Peace)
13 Anushasana Parva (the Instructions)
14 Ashvamedhika Parva (the Horse Sacrifice)
15 Ashramavasika Parva (the Hermitage)
16 Mausala Parva (the Clubs)
17 Mahaprasthanika Parva (the Great Journey)
18 Svargarohana Parva (the Ascent to Heaven)

Notes from Kisari Mohan Ganguli in the Mahabharata translation:
There are verses in the Mahabharata that are exceedingly difficult to construe. I have derived much aid from the great commentator Nilakantha.

The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Section I (extract):
"Sauti said, 'Having heard the diverse sacred and wonderful stories which were composed in his Mahabharata by Krishna-Dwaipayana, and which were recited in full by Vaisampayana at the Snakesacrifice
of the high-souled royal sage Janamejaya and in the presence also of that chief of Princes, the son of Parikshit, and having wandered about, visiting many sacred waters and holy shrines, I journeyed to the country venerated by the Dwijas (twice-born) and called Samantapanchaka where formerly was fought the battle between the children of Kuru and Pandu, and all the chiefs of the land ranged on either side.

The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Section I (extract):
"In former days, having placed the four Vedas on one side and the Bharata on the other, these were
weighed in the balance by the celestials assembled for that purpose. And as the latter weighed heavier
than the four Vedas with their mysteries, from that period it hath been called in the world Mahabharata
(the great Bharata). Being esteemed superior both in substance and gravity of import it is denominated
Mahabharata on account of such substance and gravity of import. He that knoweth its meaning is saved
from all his sins.

The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Section II (extract):
He who knows the four Vedas with all the Angas (subdivisions) and Upanishads, but does not know this history (Bharata), cannot be regarded as wise. Vyasa of immeasurable intelligence, has spoken of the Mahabharata as a treatise on Artha (prosperity), on Dharma (righteousness), and on Kama (pleasure).

The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Adivansavatarana Parva: Section LXII (extract):
The sins that are committed daily by our senses or the mind, those that are committed knowingly or unknowingly by any man, are all destroyed by hearing the Mahabharata. The history of the exalted birth of the Bharata princes is called the Mahabharata. He who knoweth this etymology of the name is cleansed of all his sins. And as this history of the Bharata race is so wonderful, that, when recited, it assuredly purifieth
mortals from all sins. The sage Krishna-Dwaipayana completed his work in three years. Rising daily and
purifying himself and performing his ascetic devotions, he composed this Mahabharata.

The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Adivansavatarana Parva: Section LXII (extract):
The sage Krishna-Dwaipayana regularly rising for three years, composed this wonderful history called Mahabharata. O bull amongst the Bharata monarchs, whatever is spoken about virtue, wealth, pleasure, and salvation may be seen elsewhere; but whatever is not contained in this is not to be found anywhere.

The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Adivansavatarana Parva: Section LXIII (extract):
And the learned Dwaipayana, beholding that virtue is destined to become lame by one leg each yuga (she having four legs in all) and that the period of life and the strength of men followed the yugas, and moved by the desire of obtaining the favour of Brahman and the Brahmanas, arranged the Vedas. And for this he came to be called Vyasa (the arranger or compiler). The boon-giving great one then taught Sumanta, Jaimini, Paila, his son Suka, and Vaisampayana, the Vedas having the Mahabharata for their fifth. And the compilation of the Bharata was published by him through them separately.

About NARAYANA

NARAYANA: (Sanskrit: नारायण, IAST: Nārāyaṇa) is known as one who is in yogic slumber on the celestial waters, referring to Lord Maha Vishnu. He is also known as The "Purusha" and is considered as the Supreme being in Vaishnavism.

Other meaning: The two Rishis Nara and Narayana (Avatars of Vishnu) , born in the the house of Dharma : "From Narayana's asceticism was born a great Muni of the name of Nara, equal to Narayana himself. Know that Arjuna is none else than that Nara. Those two Rishis, said to be older than the oldest gods, take their births in every Yuga for serving the purposes of the world." (The Mahabharata, Book 7: Drona Parva: Drona-vadha Parva: Section CCI).

"Those old deities, Nara and Narayana, have become incarnate in the world of men to accomplish the business of the celestials. They are called on earth Arjuna and Vasudeva." (The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Khandava-daha Parva: Section CCXXVI).

The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Sambhava Parva: Section LXV (extract):
"Vaisampayana said, 'Then Indra had a consultation with Narayana about the latter's descent on the earth
from heaven with all the gods according to their respective parts. And, having commanded all the
dwellers in heaven, Indra returned from the abode of Narayana. And the dwellers in heaven gradually
became incarnate on earth for the destruction of the Asuras and for the welfare of the three worlds.

The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Sambhava Parva: Section LXVII (extract):
And he, called Vasudeva, endued with great valour, was among men a portion of him called Narayana--the god of gods--eternal. And Valadeva of exceeding strength was a portion of the Naga, Sesha... And a portion of Sri herself became incarnate on earth, for the gratification of Narayana, in the line of Bhishmaka. And she was by name the chaste Rukmini. And the faultless Draupadi, slender-waisted like the wasp, was born of a portion of Sachi (the queen of the celestials), in the line of Drupada.

The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Vaivahika Parva: Section CLXLIX (extract):
Accompanied by all those Indras, the god Isana then went unto Narayana of immeasurable energy, the
Infinite, the Immaterial, the Uncreate, the Old, the Eternal, and the Spirit of these universes without
limits. Narayana approved of everything. Those Indras then were born in the world of men. And Hari
(Narayana) took up two hairs from his body, one of which hairs was black and the other white. And
those two hairs entered the wombs of two of the Yadu race, by name Devaki and Rohini. And one of
these hairs viz., that which was white, became Valadeva. And the hair that was black was born as
Kesava's self, Krishna.

The Mahabharata, Book 3: Vana Parva: Markandeya-Samasya Parva: Section CLXXXVIII (extract):
In ancient times I called the waters by the name of Nara; and because the waters have ever been my ayana or home, therefore have I been called Narayana (the waterhomed). O best of regenerate ones, I am Narayana, the Source of all things, the Eternal, the Unchangeable. I am the Creator of all things, and the Destroyer also of all. I am Vishnu, I am Brahma and I am Sakra, the chief of the gods. I am king Vaisravana, and I am Yama, the lord of the deceased spirits. I am Siva, I am Soma, and I am Kasyapa the lord of the created things. And, O best of regenerate ones, I am he called Dhatri, and he also that is called Vidhatri, and I am Sacrifice embodied. Fire is my mouth, the earth my feet, and the Sun and the Moon are my eyes; the Heaven is the crown of my head, the firmament and the cardinal points are my ears; the waters are born of my sweat. Space with the cardinal points are my body, and the Air is my mind.

The Mahabharata, Book 8: Karna Parva: Section 79 (extract):
He (Arjuna) is, again, protected by that Keshava of great energy, who is Narayana himself and who is without a rival, that high-souled Vasudeva, that evervictorious Vishnu armed with conch, discus, and mace, whose attributes all the world united together, cannot (in narrating) exhaust in 10,000 years.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Rajadharmanusasana Parva: Section XLVIII (extract):
Thou art without birth and death. Thou art Divine. Thou art self-created. Thou art eternal. Thou art invisible and beyond ken. Thou art called Hari and Narayana, O puissant one. The Vedas declare thee to be the Creator of the universe and the Lord of everything existing in the universe. Thou art the Supreme protector of the universe. Thou knowest no eterioration and thou art that which is called the highest.

About YUGA

YUGA : Yuga in Hinduism is an epoch or era within a four-age cycle. It starts with the Krita (or Satya) Yuga, followed by the Treta Yuga and the Dvapara Yuga and finally the Kali Yuga. We are currently in the Kali yuga.

- Satya Yuga equals 1,728,000 human years

- Treta Yuga equals 1,296,000 human years

- Dvapara Yuga equals 864,000 human years

- Kali Yuga equals 432,000 human years

- Together, these four yugas constitute one Mahayuga, equal to 4.32 million human years (not far from the modern scientists point of view when dating the creation of the earth).

- In the present days we may be said to live in the Kali Yuga, which is said to have started in 3102 BCE, the day that Lord Krishna left Earth and went to abode, 5122 years ago from now (2020).

-  The duration of yugas in the Mahabharata are expressed in "divine years", so : 1 divine year = 360 human years.

- Some theoreticians teach that the yugas are like a wheel with for example the Dvapara Yuga coming again after the Kali Yuga, and that we are presently in a new Dvapara Yuga (since 1700 CE). It is not what explains the Mahabharata.

The Mahabharata, Book 3: Vana Parva: Markandeya-Samasya Parva: Section CLXXXVII (extract):
Four thousand years have been said to constitute the Krita Yuga. Its dawn also, as well as its eve, hath been said to comprise four hundred years. The Treta-Yuga is said to comprise three thousand years, and its dawn, as well as its eve, is said to comprise three hundred years. The Yuga that comes next is called Dwapara, and it hath been computed to consist of two thousand years. Its dawn, as well as its eve, is said to comprise two hundred years. The next Yuga, called Kali, is said to comprise one thousand years and its dawn, as well as eve, is said to comprise one hundred years. Know, O king, that the duration of the dawn is the same as that of the eve of a Yuga. And after the Kali Yuga is over, the Krita Yuga comes again. A cycle of the Yugas thus comprised a period of twelve thousand years.
(NB: see in the glossary: YUGA to understand the conversion between divine and human years).

The Mahabharata, Book 3: Vana Parva: Markandeya-Samasya Parva: Section CLXXXVIII (extract):
O best of regenerate ones, I am Narayana, the Source of all things, the Eternal, the Unchangeable... For the preservation of rectitude and morality I assume a human form, and when the season for action cometh, I again assume forms that are inconceivable. In the Krita age I become white, in the Treta age I become yellow, in the Dwapara I have become red and in the Kali age I become dark in hue, I the Kali age, the proportion of immorality becometh threefourths, (a fourth only being that of morality). And when the end of the Yuga cometh, assuming the fierce form of Death, alone I destroy all the three worlds with their mobile and immobile existences.

The Mahabharata, Book 6: Bhishma Parva: Jamvu-khanda Nirmana Parva: Section X (extract):
"Sanjaya said,--'O bull of Bharata's race, four Yugas set in Bharata's Varsha, viz., Krita, Treta, Dwapara,
and Kali. The Yuga that sets in first is Krita. O Lord; after the expiry of Krita comes Treta; after expiry
of Treta comes Dwapara; and after that last of all, sets in Kali. Four thousand years, O best of the
Kurus, are reckoned as the measure of life, O best of kings, in the Krita epoch. Three thousand years is
the period in Treta, O ruler of men. At present in Dwapara, persons live on Earth for two thousand
years. In Kali, however, O bull of Bharata's race, there is no fixed limit of life's measure, in so much that
men die while in the womb, as also soon after birth.

The Mahabharata, Book 6: Bhishma Parva: Bhagavat-Gita Parva: Section XXXII (Bhagavad Gita Chapter VIII) (extract):

"The Holy One (Krishna) said,... All the worlds, O Arjuna, from the abode of Brahman downwards have to go through a round of births, on attaining to me, however, O son of Kunti, there is no re-birth. They who know a day of Brahman to end after a thousand Yugas, and a night (of his) to terminate after a thousand Yugas are persons that know day and night. On the advent of (Brahman's) day everything that is manifest springeth from the unmanifest; and when (his) night cometh, into that same which is called unmanifest all things disappear.

About JIVA

JIVA: In Hinduism the jiva (Sanskrit: जीव, IAST: jīva) is a living being, or any entity imbued with a life force.
Also meaning the individual Soul or jiva-soul or chit-soul.
- Chapter 2 of the Bhagavad Gita contains verses describing the jiva. For example, the jiva is described as eternal and indestructible in Chapter 2, verse 20.
- "If the tip of the hair were to be divided in to one hundred parts and each part was divided into 100 more parts, that would be the dimension of the Jiva (soul)". Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad (5.9).
Notes from Kisari Mohan Ganguli in the Mahabharata translation:
- At first there was only jiva or the Soul having knowledge alone for its attribute. When it became clothed with Ignorance, the universe sprang up around it.
- In the Srutis it is said that Brahma has two attributes, Vidya (Knowledge), and Avidya (Ignorance) with Maya (delusion). It is in consequence of this Maya that chit-souls or jivas become attached to worldly things. It is in consequence of this Maya that persons, even when they understand that all is nought, cannot totally dissociate themselves from them.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCXXX (extract):
The five senses, the three attributes of Tamas, Sattwa, and Rajas,--these (together with those which have been mentioned before) constitute a tale of seventeen. These seventeen, which are known by the name of the
Unmanifest, with all those that are called Manifest, viz., the five objects of the five senses, (that is to say,
form, taste, sound, touch, and scent), with Consciousness and the Understanding, form the well-known
tale of four and twenty. When endued with these four and twenty possessions, one comes to be called by
the name of Jiva (or Puman).

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CCXXXVI (extract):
Without speaking of the results of the attainment of Brahma by yoga, it may be said that he who sets himself to only enquiring after the Soul transcends the necessity of observing the acts laid down in the Vedas. The body with jiva within it is an excellent car.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CCXLI (extract):
The knowledge is the attribute of the individual soul residing within the body. The individual soul, in its turn, comes from the Supreme Soul. The body with the soul is said to be the attribute of jiva. It is jiva that acts and cause all bodies to live.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CCXLVI (extract):
"Vyasa said, 'The Jiva-soul is endued with all those entities that are modifications of Prakriti. These do
not know the Soul but the Soul knows them all. Like a good driver proceeding with the aid of strong,
well-broken, and high-mettled steeds along the paths he selects, the Soul acts with the aid of these,
called the senses, having the mind for their sixth.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CCLIII (extract):
Wonderful it is to note that jiva, which has to lie within the uterus and amid much internal heat, and which has to pass a period of full ten months in that place, is not digested and reduced to destruction like food within the stomach. Men overwhelmed by the qualities of Rajas (passions) and Tamas (ignorance) never succeed in beholding within the gross body: the Jiva-soul which is a portion of the Supreme Soul of transcendent effulgence and which lies within the heart of every creature.

About MAHAT

MAHAT: The Mahat (the Great One) is the first reality to emerge from Prakriti. It has a universal aspect as the source of the world, and a physical aspect as intelligence or buddhi in the living beings. It is responsible for rationality and discriminating awareness.

Notes from Kisari Mohan Ganguli in the Mahabharata translation:
- Dhaturadyam Vidhanam (in the Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCLII) is supposed by the commentator to imply what is known as Mahat i.e., the existence of Jiva before the consciousness of Ego arises.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCXXX (extract):
This entire universe of matter, and that which is called Mahat or Buddhi, are made up of the (five) great elements (earth, air, space, water, fire). That which is called Mahat is due to the action of the Supreme.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CLXXXII (extract):
"Bhrigu said, 'There is a Primeval Being, known to the great Rishis, of the name of Manasa. He is
without beginning and without end. That Divine Being is incapable of being penetrated by weapons. He
is without decay and is Immortal. He is said to be Unmanifest. He is Eternal, Undecaying, and
Unchangeable. Through Him are creatures born and through Him they die. He first created a Divine Being known by the name of Mahat. Mahat then creates Consciousness.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CCXLVI (extract):
The objects of the senses are superior to the senses themselves. The mind is superior to those objects. The understanding is superior to the mind. The Soul, also called Mahat, is superior to the understanding. Superior to Mahat is the Unmanifest (or Prakriti). Superior to the Unmanifest is Brahma. There is nothing Superior to Brahma.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCVI (extract):
The Supreme Soul is different from both the Jiva-soul and the universe. As the seasons though unendued with forms, are nevertheless inferred from the appearance of particular fruits and flowers, after the same manner, Prakriti, though formless, is inferred from the attributes of Mahat and the rest that spring from it.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCVII (extract):
The Sankhyas, whose system is built on Prakriti, say that Prakriti, which is Unmanifest, is the foremost.
From Prakriti, they say, O monarch, the second principle called Mahat, is produced. It is heard by us that
from Mahat flows the third principle called Consciousness.

The Mahabharata, Book 13: Anusasana Parva: Section CLXI (extract):
Because He (Shiva) is great (Mahat) and the Supreme Lord of all (Iswara), therefore He is called Maheswara.

About MOKSHA

MOKSHA: emancipation. Freedom from saṃsāra, the cycle of death and rebirth.

Notes from Kisari Mohan Ganguli in the Mahabharata translation:

- To attain to Emancipation one must practise a life of Renunciation instead of continuing in the domestic mode.

- It should be noted here that the Hindu idea of emancipation is not bliss enjoyed by a conscious Self, but freedom from the obligation of re-birth and Karma.

- Action, as explained in a subsequent Sloka (Udyoga Parva: Sanat-sujata Parva: Section XLII), leadeth, it is true to regions of bliss and emancipation, but that state is transitory, for when the merit is extinguished, the state that was attained in consequence of it, is extinguished, and the person falling off, has to recommence action. If, therefore, permanent emancipation is to be attained, the obligation of re-commencing action must be got rid of, i.e., care must be taken that the portions of the route once passed over may not have to be re-trodden.

The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Sambhava Parva: Section XC (extract):
'After the dissolution of the body, man, according to his acts, re-entereth the womb of his mother and stayeth there in an indistinct form, and soon after assuming a distinct and visible shape reappeareth in the world and walketh on its surface. This is that Earth-hell (Bhauma) where he falleth, for he beholdeth not the termination of his existence and acteth not towards his emancipation. Some dwell for sixty thousand years, some, for eighty-thousand years in heaven, and then they fall. And as they fall, they are attacked by certain Rakshasas in the form of sons, grandsons, and other relatives, that withdraw their hearts from acting for their own emancipation.'

The Mahabharata, Book 3: Vana Parva: Aranyaka Parva: Section I (extract):
Verily association with fools produceth an illusion that entangleth the mind, as daily communion with the good and the wise leadeth to the practice of virtue. Therefore, they that desire emancipation should associate with those that are wise and old and honest and pure in conduct and possessed of ascetic merit.

The Mahabharata, Book 3: Vana Parva: Markandeya-Samasya Parva: Section CLXLIX (extract):
One may attain to heaven by asceticism, one may obtain objects of enjoyment by the practice of charity and may have his sins purged off by ablutions in tirthas (pilgrimage sites and holy places). But complete emancipation cannot be had except by knowledge.

The Mahabharata, Book 3: Vana Parva: Ghosha-yatra Parva: Section CCLIX (extract):
And having obtained power by means of knowledge, and acquired excellent understanding, he attained that supreme state of emancipation which is regarded as Eternal.

The Mahabharata, Book 5: Udyoga Parva: Sanat-sujata Parva: Section XLIV (extract):
Men, by work, however pure, obtain only worlds that are perishable; he, however, that is blessed with Knowledge, attaineth, by the aid of that Knowledge, to Brahman which is everlasting. There is no other path (than Knowledge or the attainment of Brahman) leading to emancipation.

About PURUSHA

PURUSHA: Hinduism refers to Purusha as Brahma(n), the Soul of the universe, the universal Spirit present everywhere, in everything and everyone, all the times.

Other meaning: the Soul within any individual living being a part of the Supreme Soul (Paramatman).

Other meaning: the male (man) is commonly called Purusha as the female (woman) is commonly called Prakriti.

Notes from Kisari Mohan Ganguli in the Mahabharata translation:

- The literal meaning of Purusha, as applied to the Supreme Being, is 'One that pervades all forms in

the Universe.'

- The several stages, as mentioned in those verses (The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CCXVII), are as follows: Superior to the senses are their objects. Superior to the objects is the mind.Superior to the mind is the understanding. Superior to the understanding is the Soul. Superior to the Soul is the Unmanifest. Superior to the Unmanifest is Purusha (Brahman). There is nothing above Purusha.

- Purusha is full; as applied to Narayana, it, of course, means one who has no defect but who is the sole representative of fullness.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCLI (extract):
"Brahma said, 'O son, many are those Purushas of whom thou speakest. The one Purusha, however, of
whom I am thinking, transcends all Purushas and is invisible. The many Purushas that exist in the
universe have that one Purusha as their basis; and since that one Purusha is said to be the source
whence all the innumerable Purushas have sprung, hence all the latter, if they succeed in divesting
themselves of attributes, become competent to enter into that one Purusha who is identified with the
universe, who is supreme, who is the foremost of the foremost, who is eternal, and who is himself
divested of and is above all attributes."

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCIV (extract):
After the same manner, Purusha (or Soul), though without attributes himself, has his existence affirmed in
consequence of the acts which the body does when it receives his reflection. Although the Soul is not
subject to modifications of any kind and is the active principle that sets Prakriti in motion, yet entering a
body that is united with the senses of knowledge and action, he regards all the acts of those senses as his
own.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCVII (extract):
The Supreme Being is all that remains when Universal Destruction takes place, and it is He that assumes
multifarious forms when Creation starts into life. This is even so, O king, as ascertained by men of
knowledge. It is Prakriti that causes the Overpresiding Purusha to thus assume diversity and revert back
to unity.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCVII (extract):
The Unmanifest is called Kshetra. Sattwa (understanding), and also Iswara (the supreme Lord), while Purusha, which is the twenty-fifth principle has nothing superior to it and is not a principle (for it transcends all principles and is only called a principle conventionally).

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCVIII (extract):
Listen now to me as I tell thee what is Vidya (knowledge) and what is Avidya (Ignorance), one after the other. The learned say that Prakriti, which is fraught with the attributes of Creation and Destruction, is called Avidya; while Purusha, who is freed from the attributes of Creation and Destruction and who transcends the four and twenty topics or principles, is called Vidya.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCXLVIII (extract):
Listen now, O best of kings, to me as I narrate to thee how the Destruction is brought about of all things. At first, the element of Earth becomes merged in Water and nothing then is seen save one vast expanse of Water on all sides. Water then merges into Heat, and Heat into Wind. Wind then merges into Space, which in its turn, merges into Mind. Mind merges into the Manifest (otherwise called Consciousness or Ego). The
Manifest merges into the Unmanifest (or Prakriti). The Unmanifest (or Prakriti) merges into Purusha
(Jivatman) and Purusha merges into the Supreme Soul (or Brahman).

About PRAKRITI

PRAKRITI: the primal matter.

In the sankhya system, the 23 evolutes of prakṛti are categorized as follows :
Internal instruments : Intellect (Buddhi or Mahat), Ego-sense (Ahamkāra), Mind (Manas).
External instruments : Five Sense organs (Jnānendriyas or : eyes, ears, tongue, skin, and nose), Five Organs of action (Karmendriyas or : organ of speech, hands, feet, organ of generation and anus, the organ of excretion).
Subtle elements : Form (Rupa), Sound (Shabda), Smell (Gandha), Taste (Rasa), Touch (Sparsha).
Gross elements : Earth (Prithivi), Water (Jala), Fire (Agni), Air (Vāyu), Ether or Space (Ākāsha).

NB : Prakriti is called de 24th and Purusha is the 25th.

Notes from Kisari Mohan Ganguli in the Mahabharata translation:

- The word rendered "nature" is prakriti. It really implies "primal matter."

- Avyakta or Unmanifest is Prakriti or primordial matter both gross and subtile. That which

transcends both Prakriti and Purusha is, of course the Supreme Soul or Brahma.

- Prakriti which I render "nature" is explained by the commentators as Karma, the influence of

Karma or action being universal in setting the form of a particular entity at the time of its creation.

- It should be added that women, in almost all the dialects of India derived from Sanskrit, are commonly called Prakriti.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CCX (extract):
When primordial matter produces existences through the action of the primal energy, the universe with all its potencies begins to flow from it. From one lighted lamp thousands of other lamps are capable of being lighted. After the same manner, primordial matter produces thousands of existent things. In consequence, again, of its infinity primordial matter is never exhausted. From the Unmanifest flows the Understanding determined by acts. The Understanding produces Consciousness. From Consciousness proceeds Space. From Space proceeds Wind. From the Wind proceeds Heat. From Heat proceeds Water, and from Water is produced the Earth. These eight constitute primordial Prakriti.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CCXVII (extract):
Both Prakriti and Purusha are without beginning and without end. Both are incapable of being known by their
like. Both are eternal and indestructible. Both are greater than the greatest (of being). In these they are
similar. They are points of dissimilarity again between them. (Of these I shall speak presently). Prakriti
is fraught with the three attributes (of Goodness, Passion, and Darkness). It is also engaged in creation.
The true attributes of Kshetrajna (Purusha or the Soul) should be known to be different. Purusha is the
apprehender of all the transformations of Prakriti (but cannot be apprehended himself). He transcends (in
respect of his original nature) all attributes.

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CCXLVI (extract):
"Vyasa said, 'The Jiva-soul is endued with all those entities that are modifications of Prakriti. These do
not know the Soul but the Soul knows them all. Like a good driver proceeding with the aid of strong,
well-broken, and high-mettled steeds along the paths he selects, the Soul acts with the aid of these,
called the senses, having the mind for their sixth. The objects of the senses are superior to the senses
themselves. The mind is superior to those objects. The understanding is superior to the mind. The Soul,
also called Mahat, is superior to the understanding. Superior to Mahat is the Unmanifest (or Prakriti).
Superior to the Unmanifest is Brahma. There is nothing Superior to Brahma.

The Mahabharata, Book 5: Udyoga Parva: Bhagwat Yana Parva: Section CXI (extract):
As Purusha, he sporteth here with Prakriti (the universal mother).

The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CCX (extract):
Having reduced everything into non-existence, He once more, in the beginning of a (new) yuga, creates Prakriti (primordial matter).